# Immersed data and their operations


## The grid in physical space

Thus far, we have not had to consider the relationship between the grid's index space and some physical space. All of the operations thus far have acted on the entries in the discrete fields, based only on their relative indices, and not on their physical coordinates. In this section, we will discuss the relationship between the grid's index space and physical space, and then in the next section we'll discuss how we can transfer data between these spaces.

Generically, we can write the relationship between the physical coordinates $x$ and $y$, and the indices $i$ and $j$ of any grid point as

$$$x(i) = (i - \Delta i - i_0)\Delta x, \quad y(j) = (j - \Delta j - j_0)\Delta x$$$

The scaling between these spaces is controlled by $\Delta x$, which represents the uniform size of each grid cell; note that grid cells are presumed to be square in CartesianGrids. The indices $I_0 = (i_0,j_0)$ represent the location of the origin in the index space for primal nodes. Why primal nodes? Since the underlying grid is composed of dual cells, then primal nodes sit at the corners of the domain, so it is the most convenient for anchoring the grid to a specific point. But, since some field data of the same index are shifted by half a cell in one or both directions, then $\Delta i$ and $\Delta j$ are included for such purposes; these are either $0$ or $1/2$, depending on the field type. For example, for a primal node, $\Delta i = 0$, so that $x(i_0) = 0$; for a dual node, $\Delta i = 1/2$, so that $x(i_0) = -\Delta x/2$.

In particular, for our four different data types and their components

• Primal nodes: $\Delta i = 0$, $\Delta j = 0$
• Dual nodes: $\Delta i = 1/2$, $\Delta j = 1/2$
• Primal edges u: $\Delta i = 1/2$, $\Delta j = 0$
• Primal edges v: $\Delta i = 0$, $\Delta j = 1/2$
• Dual edges u: $\Delta i = 0$, $\Delta j = 1/2$
• Dual edges v: $\Delta i = 1/2$, $\Delta j = 0$

## Regularization and interpolation

Based on this relationship between the physical space and the index space, we can now construct a means of transferring data between a point $(x,y)$ in the physical space and the grid points in its immediate vicinity. We say that such a point is immersed in the grid. The process of transferring from the point to the grid is called regularization, since we are effectively smearing this data over some extended neighborhood; the opposite operation, transferring grid field data to an arbitrary point, is interpolation. In CartesianGrids, both operations are carried out with the discrete delta function (DDF), which is a discrete analog of the Dirac delta function. The DDF generally has compact support, so that it only interacts with a small number of grid points in the vicinity of a given physical location. Since each of the different field types reside at slightly different locations, the range of indices invoked in this interaction will be different for each field type.

Regularization can actually take different forms. It can be a simple point-wise interpolation, the discrete analog of simply multiplying by the Dirac delta function:

$$$f_i \delta(\mathbf{x} - \mathbf{x}_i)$$$

to immerse a value $f_i$ based at point $\mathbf{x}_i = (x_i,y_i)$.

Alternatively, regularization can be carried out over a curve $\mathbf{X}(s)$, the analog of

$$$\int f(s) \delta(\mathbf{x} - \mathbf{X}(s))\mathrm{d}s$$$

or it can be performed volumetrically, corresponding to

$$$\int f(\mathbf{y}) \delta(\mathbf{x} - \mathbf{y})\mathrm{d}\mathbf{y}$$$

In this case, the function $f$ is distributed over some region of space. In each of these cases, the discrete version is simply a sum over data at a finite number of discrete points, and the type of regularization is specified by providing an optional argument specifying the arclength, area or volume associated with each discrete point. These arguments are used to weight the sum.

Let's see the regularization and interpolation in action. We will set up a ring of 100 points on a circle of radius $1/4$ centered at $(1/2,1/2)$. This curve- type regularization will be weighted by the arclength, $ds$, associated with each of the 100 points. On these points, we will set vector-valued data in which the $x$ component is uniformly equal to 1.0, while the $y$ component is set equal to the vertical position relative to the circle center. We will regularize these vector data to a primal edge field on the grid in which these points are immersed.

julia> n = 100;julia> θ = range(0,stop=2π,length=n+1);julia> x = 0.5 .+ 0.25*cos.(θ[1:n]);julia> y = 0.5 .+ 0.25*sin.(θ[1:n]);julia> ds = 2π/n*0.25;julia> X = VectorData(x,y);

The variable X now holds the coordinates of the immersed points. Now we will set up the vector-valued data on these points

julia> f = VectorData(X);julia> fill!(f.u,1.0);julia> f.v .= X.v.-0.5;

Note that we have ensured that f has the correct dimensions by supplying the coordinate data X. This first step also initializes the data to zeros.

Now, let's set up the grid. The physical domain will be of size $1.0 \times 1.0$, and we will use $100$ dual grid cells in each direction. Allowing a single layer of ghost cells surrounding the domain, we use $102$ cells, and set the cell size to 0.01. Also, we will set the $(x,y)$ origin to coincide with the lower left corner of the domain.

julia> nx = 102; ny = 102;julia> q = Edges(Primal,(nx,ny));julia> Lx = 1.0;julia> dx = Lx/(nx-2)0.01

Now we set up the regularization operator. To set it up, it needs to know the coordinate data of the set of immersed points, the grid cell size, and the weight to apply to each immersed point. Since this is a regularization of a curve, this weight is the differential arc length ds associated with each point. (This last argument is supplied as a scalar, since it is uniform.)

julia> H = Regularize(X,dx,weights=ds)Regularization/interpolation operator with non-filtered interpolation
DDF type CartesianGrids.Yang3
100 points in grid with cell area 0.0001

We have omitted some optional arguments. For example, it chooses a default DDF kernel (the 3rd-order Yang kernel Yang3); this can be changed with the ddftype argument. Also, the lower left corner, where we've set the origin, is the location of the $(1,1)$ primal node; this is the default choice for I0 (the tuple $I_0$ of coordinates in index space discussed in the previous section).

Now we can apply the regularization operator. We supply the target field q as the first argument and the source data f as the second argument.

julia> H(q,f);julia> plot(q)Plot{Plots.PyPlotBackend() n=2}

We could also regularize this to a field of dual edges.

julia> p = Edges(Dual,(nx,ny));julia> H(p,f);julia> plot(p)Plot{Plots.PyPlotBackend() n=2}

Scalar-valued data on the immersed points can only be regularized to nodal fields; the syntax is similar, and the regularization operator does not need to be reconstructed:

julia> g = ScalarData(X);julia> fill!(g,1.0);julia> w = Nodes(Dual,(nx,ny));julia> H(w,g);julia> plot(w)Plot{Plots.PyPlotBackend() n=1}

For a given regularization operator, $H$, there is a companion interpolation operator, $E$. In CartesianGrids, this interpolation is also carried out with the same constructed operator, but with the arguments reversed: the grid field data are the source and the immersed points are the target. Note that interpolation is always a volumetric operation, so the weights assigned during the construction of the operator are not used in interpolation. Let's interpolate our regularized field back onto the immersed points.

julia> f2 = VectorData(X);julia> H(f2,q);julia> plot(f2.u,lab="u")Plot{Plots.PyPlotBackend() n=1}julia> plot!(f2.v,lab="v")Plot{Plots.PyPlotBackend() n=2}

Note that interpolation is not the inverse of regularization; we don't recover the original data when we regularize and then interpolate. However, there is generally a way to scale the quantities on the immersed points and on the grid so that $H = E^T$. If we want to force these operations to be transposes of each other, we can supply the issymmetric=true flag. This flag will override any supplied weights. But here, we will exclude it so that it defaults to the asymmetric form.

julia> H = Regularize(X,dx)Regularization/interpolation operator with non-filtered interpolation
DDF type CartesianGrids.Yang3
100 points in grid with cell area 0.0001

If we expect to carry out the regularization and interpolation a lot, then it is often sensible to construct matrix versions of these operators. This construction is sometimes a bit slow, but the resulting operators perform their operations much faster than the matrix-free operators described above. To generate these matrix operators, we have to supply the data types of the source and target of the operation. For example, for regularization from scalar field data to dual node data,

julia> g = ScalarData(X);julia> w = Nodes(Dual,(nx,ny));julia> Hmat = RegularizationMatrix(H,g,w);julia> fill!(g,1.0);julia> w .= Hmat*g;

In general, the interpolation matrix is separately constructed, and the source and target are reversed:

julia> Emat = InterpolationMatrix(H,w,g);julia> g .= Emat*w;

Alternatively, if the regularization and interpolation are symmetric, then we can get them both when we call for the regularization matrix:

julia> H = Regularize(X,dx,issymmetric=true)Symmetric regularization/interpolation operator with non-filtered interpolation
DDF type CartesianGrids.Yang3
100 points in grid with cell area 0.0001julia> Hmat, Emat = RegularizationMatrix(H,g,w);

It might seem a bit funny to store them separately if they are just transposes of each other, but it is essential for the method dispatch that they are given separate types.

## Other operations with point-type data

We have seen point-type data structures, ScalarData and VectorData; there is also a tensor type of data, TensorData, which holds the four components of a 2x2 tensor. One can regularize and interpolate with this tensor data, as well; its companion grid data structure is the EdgeGradient type, which is a wrapper for four Nodes structures: two Dual, and two Primal, where the four tensor components are naturally held on the grid.

There are also some extensions of standard operations to the VectorData type. For example, we can add a tuple of two numbers to vector data, and these numbers get added to each entry in the set of points, component-wise. For example,

julia> Y = VectorData(4)4 points of vector-valued Float64 data
8-element Vector{Float64}:
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0julia> Y + (1,2)4 points of vector-valued Float64 data
8-element Vector{Float64}:
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0

Subtraction also works, and the operations are commutable.

Another useful operation is a cross product, which can be carried out between a single scalar (treated as though it was the component of an out-of-plane vector) and VectorData:

julia> using LinearAlgebrajulia> X = VectorData(4)4 points of vector-valued Float64 data
8-element Vector{Float64}:
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0julia> fill!(X.u,1)4 points of scalar-valued Float64 data
4-element view(::Vector{Float64}, 1:4) with eltype Float64:
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0julia> 2.0×X4 points of vector-valued Float64 data
8-element Vector{Float64}:
-0.0
-0.0
-0.0
-0.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0